Advances in sports science are helping to clarify the relationship between endurance and genes. Research has shown that certain gene polymorphisms affect endurance. In this article, we will explain the main genes related to endurance and their effects, including the latest research results.
The relationship between endurance and genes
1. Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) gene
The ACE gene encodes an enzyme involved in blood pressure regulation and electrolyte balance. This gene has insertion (I) and deletion (D) polymorphisms, and it has been reported that these polymorphisms are associated with endurance. In particular, it has been suggested that individuals with type I may have superior endurance abilities.
2. Alpha-actinin 3 (ACTN3) gene
The ACTN3 gene codes for a protein found in fast-twitch skeletal muscle fibers. There are two types of this gene: R and X. XX individuals lack the α-actinin 3 protein. Research has shown that XX people tend to have better endurance athletic performance.
3. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) polymorphism
Mitochondria are the center of energy production, and it has been shown that DNA polymorphisms in mitochondria affect endurance. It has been reported that individual differences in maternally inherited mtDNA affect not only endurance but also explosive abilities.
Use of genetic testing and ethical issues
Advances in genetic testing technology have made it easier to understand an individual’s genetic characteristics. As a result, there is a trend toward using genetic information in training and sports selection. However, the handling of genetic information also raises ethical issues, such as privacy and discrimination issues. Therefore, careful consideration is required regarding how to use the results of genetic testing.
4. Other Genes Involved in Endurance
ACE and ACTN3 are not the only genes that affect endurance. With the development of genetic analysis technology, new endurance-related genes are being discovered one after another.
(1) PPARGC1A gene (regulation of mitochondrial biogenesis)
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1α (PPARGC1A) is a key gene regulating mitochondrial biogenesis and energy metabolism . High expression of this gene increases mitochondrial density in muscle and improves oxygen consumption.
Endurance properties involved
People with high PPARGC1A expression are better suited to long-term aerobic exercise.
People with low PPARGC1A expression have poor mitochondrial function and are better suited to explosive power rather than endurance.
Research evidence
It has been reported that certain variants of the PPARGC1A gene are common in endurance athletes (source: nature.com ).
(2) VEGFA gene (promotes angiogenesis)
VEGFA (vascular endothelial growth factor A) is a gene that promotes angiogenesis and optimizes oxygen supply to muscles. For endurance exercise, it is essential to have sufficient blood flow to the muscles , and the expression level of this gene affects this.
Endurance properties involved
People with high VEGFA expression have high capillary density and efficient oxygen supply to muscles.
People with low VEGFA expression are more likely to have limited oxygen supply during endurance exercise.
Research evidence
Mutations in the VEGFA gene have been shown to be significantly different between endurance athletes and non-athletes (Reference: ncbi.nlm.nih.gov ).
(3) NRF2 gene (improving resistance to oxidative stress)
NRF2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2) is a gene that protects cells from oxidative stress. Since a large amount of reactive oxygen species is generated during endurance exercise, resistance to oxidative stress is the key to improving endurance.
Endurance properties involved
People with high NRF2 activity are more resistant to oxidative stress during endurance exercise and recover from fatigue more quickly.
Individuals with low NRF2 activity are more susceptible to oxidative stress and take longer to recover after endurance exercise.
Research evidence
It has been shown that people with highly active NRF2 genes are better adapted to endurance training (source: sciencedirect.com ).
5. Endurance and genetics in action: personalized training
By utilizing genetic information, it is possible to optimize training methods that are suitable for each individual and efficiently improve endurance.
(1) Optimization of training programs according to genotype
Relationship between ACE genotype and training
Type I (Endurance-dominant type) → Easily adapted to long-term aerobic exercise. Suitable for marathons and triathlons.
Type D (explosive power dominant type) → Easily adapted to anaerobic exercise, suitable for short distance running and weightlifting.
Relationship between ACTN3 genotype and training
RR type (fast-twitch predominant) – Ideal for interval training and sprint sports.
XX type (slow-twitch muscle dominant) → LSD (long slow distance) training is effective.
(2) Training strategies for enhancing mitochondrial function
The key to improving endurance is the efficient energy production ability of mitochondria . By utilizing genetic information and selecting optimal training, it is possible to effectively improve endurance.
Recommended Training
For people with high expression of PPARGC1A , high-intensity interval training (HIIT) is effective.
For people with high VEGFA expression , long-term, low-intensity aerobic exercise promotes an increase in capillaries.
Research evidence
It has been reported that HIIT increases the expression of PPARGC1A and contributes to improved endurance (reference: nature.com ).
(3) Nutritional strategies using genetic information
Proper nutrition is essential for improving endurance, and by utilizing genetic information, we can develop an optimal nutrition strategy for each individual.
Genotype-based nutritional management
People with a mutation in the VDR gene (vitamin D receptor) → Vitamin D absorption is low, so supplements are used.
People with a mutation in the MCT1 gene (lactic acid metabolism) → Because they have a low ability to remove lactic acid, they should increase their intake of antioxidants (vitamins C and E).
Research evidence
Vitamin D supplementation has been shown to contribute to improved performance in endurance athletes (Reference: ncbi.nlm.nih.gov ).
(4) Recovery program using genetic information
Proper recovery is essential to improving endurance, and by utilizing genetic information, we can develop recovery strategies that are tailored to your individual recovery capabilities.
Optimizing recovery
People with highly active NRF2 genes → Improve recovery ability through training in a low-oxygen environment.
People with low expression of the HSP70 gene (heat shock protein) → Emphasis on icing and stretching.
Research evidence
Oxygen capsules may increase NRF2 activity and contribute to improved endurance (Source: sciencedirect.com ).
6. A practical approach to improving endurance using genetic information
Using genetic information, a personalized approach to maximizing endurance performance is possible. By optimizing training, nutrition, recovery, and environmental adaptation at a genetic level, more effective performance improvement can be expected.
(1) Optimization of training according to genotype
Endurance training and ACE genotype
There are two types of ACE genes: Type I (endurance advantage) and Type D (explosive power advantage). By adopting a training method that matches your genotype, you can improve your performance efficiently.
Type I/I (adapted to improve endurance) → Long-term, low-intensity aerobic exercise (LSD) is optimal .
I/D type (balanced endurance and explosive power) → Interval training and tempo running are effective .
D/D type (more towards explosive power) → HIIT (high-intensity interval training) is necessary to improve endurance .
The ACTN3 gene and muscle fiber adaptation
ACTN3 genotype influences endurance training adaptation.
XX type (slow-twitch muscle dominant) → Long-distance running and cycling are suitable .
RR type (fast-twitch predominant) → Muscle endurance training (resistance + aerobic exercise) is effective for improving endurance .
Research evidence
Athletes with the XX type of ACTN3 tend to perform better in endurance events (source: nature.com ).
(2) Environmental adaptation training using genetic information
The ability to adapt to the environment is important for improving endurance . We will introduce ways to improve adaptability using genetic information, such as training at high altitudes (high altitude training) and heat acclimatization.
The HIF1A gene and high altitude training
The HIF1A (hypoxia-inducible factor 1α) gene determines the ability to adapt to low-oxygen environments.
People with high HIF1A activity tend to adapt quickly to high altitude training and are more likely to improve their oxygen transport capacity.
People with low HIF1A activity : It takes time for them to adapt to high altitude training, so they need to acclimate to a low-oxygen environment beforehand.
The UCP2 gene and heat acclimation
The UCP2 (uncoupling protein 2) gene is involved in thermoregulation and energy metabolism .
People with high expression of UCP2 are more resistant to hot environments and can handle long-term endurance exercise.
People with low UCP2 expression have difficulty with endurance exercise in a hot environment, so prior heat acclimatization training is required.
Research evidence
Marathon runners with high expression of HIF1A are more likely to perform better at high altitudes (reference: ncbi.nlm.nih.gov ).
(3) Optimization of nutritional strategies based on genotype
Proper nutrition is essential to improve endurance, and by utilizing genetic information, it is possible to create a nutritional plan that is tailored to the individual.
Energy metabolism and the PPARGC1A gene
The PPARGC1A gene regulates mitochondrial energy production and therefore has a major impact on endurance performance.
People with high expression of PPARGC1A are suitable for a high-carbohydrate diet (for endurance running ) .
People with low PPARGC1A expression → A high-fat diet (ketogenic diet) may improve energy efficiency .
The MCT1 gene and lactate metabolism
The MCT1 (monocarboxylate transporter 1) gene influences the ability to remove lactate.
People with high MCT1 function have faster lactate clearance and are more likely to adapt to high-intensity endurance exercise.
People with low MCT1 function → Because lactic acid is easily accumulated, it is recommended that they take antioxidants (vitamins C and E).
Research evidence
Athletes with high expression of MCT1 tend to perform better in high-intensity endurance exercise (source: sciencedirect.com ).
(4) Recovery program using genetic information
Proper recovery is essential to improving endurance, and genetic information can help optimize recovery strategies based on your individual recovery capabilities.
The NRF2 gene and antioxidant capacity
NRF2 is a gene that protects cells from oxidative stress.
People with high NRF2 activity recover faster after endurance exercise, and recovery through stretching and low-intensity exercise is effective .
For people with low NRF2 activity , it is recommended to take antioxidants (green tea polyphenols, vitamin E) .
HSP70 genes and heat shock proteins
HSP70 (heat shock protein) is involved in stress resistance and resilience.
People with high HSP70 expression → **After hot environments or high-intensity training
7. Using genetic information to improve performance
A genetically-informed, personalized approach to maximizing endurance performance is key, and this article details practical strategies including training methods, nutritional management, recovery plans, and environmental adaptations.
(1) Genotype-specific training for improving endurance
By choosing the right training method for your genotype, you can improve your endurance more effectively.
Training plans for different ACE genotypes
Type I/I (endurance type) → Focus on long-term, low-intensity aerobic exercise (LSD) . Ideal for marathons and ultramarathons.
I/D type (balanced type) → Training that combines endurance and strength (e.g. tempo running + strength training). Suitable for triathlons.
D/D type (explosive power type) → Emphasis on HIIT and interval training to strengthen endurance.
The ACTN3 gene and endurance training
XX type (slow-twitch muscle dominant) → Long-distance running and cycling are effective .
RR type (fast-twitch muscle dominant) → Combine short distance running with muscle endurance training (squats, lunges) .
Research evidence
Athletes with the XX type of ACTN3 have been reported to perform better in endurance events (source: nature.com ).
(2) Optimization of nutritional management and energy supply
To improve endurance performance, it is important to adopt a nutritional strategy tailored to your genotype.
Nutritional intake plan for each genotype
People with high expression of PPARGC1A are suitable for a high-carbohydrate diet (energy supply centered on carbohydrates) .
For people with low PPARGC1A expression,a high-fat diet (ketone body energy strategy) is effective.
People with low MCT1 expression should actively consume antioxidant foods (vitamins C and E) to promote lactic acid metabolism .
Key nutrients for endurance
Iron (related to the HFE gene) → Eat red meat and liver to improve oxygen transport capacity .
Vitamin D (related to the VDR gene) → Use sunbathing and supplements to maintain muscle strength and strengthen the immune system .
Omega-3 fatty acids (related to the PPARα gene) → Effective in suppressing inflammation and optimizing energy metabolism .
Research evidence
People with high PPARGC1A expression have been shown to benefit from a high-carbohydrate diet in improving endurance (reference: ncbi.nlm.nih.gov ).
(3) Recovery strategies and optimization of fatigue recovery
Using your genetic information to implement a personalized recovery strategy can help you sustain your endurance.
The NRF2 gene and antioxidant capacity
People with high NRF2 expression recover quickly after endurance exercise, so stretching and massage are effective for recovery .
People with low NRF2 expression : Actively take in antioxidants (green tea polyphenols, vitamin E) to help recover from fatigue .
HSP70 genes and heat shock proteins
People with high HSP70 expression tend to recover faster in hot environments or after high-intensity training.
People with low HSP70 expression : Use ice or a low-temperature sauna to promote recovery.
Research evidence
Athletes with high expression of the NRF2 gene have been shown to recover faster after endurance exercise (source: sciencedirect.com ).
(4) Environmental adaptation and high altitude training
The ability to adapt to the environment is also important for improving endurance. In particular, it is known that high altitude training contributes greatly to improving endurance .
The HIF1A gene and oxygen adaptation
People with high HIF1A expression are more likely to adapt to high altitude environments and have improved oxygen transport capacity.
People with low HIF1A expression:They take longer to adapt to high altitude training, so they need to acclimate to a low-oxygen environment beforehand.
The UCP2 gene and heat acclimation
People with high UCP2 expression are more resistant to hot environments and can handle long-term endurance exercise.
People with low UCP2 expression:Incorporate heat acclimatization training to strengthen thermoregulation.
Research evidence
Athletes with high expression of HIF1A have been shown to show significant improvements in endurance after high-altitude training (source: nature.com ).
8. The future of genetic analysis in improving endurance
In recent years, genetic analysis technology has advanced, making it possible to predict endurance potential more accurately.
AI-powered personalized training
AI analyzes genetic data and suggests the optimal training menu for each individual.
Collects biometric data in real time to monitor fatigue and recovery status.
The potential of genome editing technology
Research is underway into gene regulation to improve endurance using CRISPR technology.
In the future, medical technologies may be developed that target genes related to endurance.
Research evidence
Performance predictions that combine AI and genetic analysis have been shown to be more accurate than traditional training metrics (Reference: ncbi.nlm.nih.gov ).
9. Practical strategies for endurance training using genetic information
Training strategies using genetic information are evolving rapidly with the development of sports science. Understanding individual genetic characteristics and adopting training methods suited to those characteristics will enable you to maximize your endurance.
(1) Adjusting training intensity and recovery time according to genotype
Genotype and training intensity
ACE I/Type I (endurance-focused) → **Low intensity, long-term training (60-70% VO2max)** is optimal.
ACE D/D type (explosive power type) → Incorporates high-intensity interval training (HIIT) to strengthen endurance.
ACTN3 XX type (slow-twitch muscle dominant type) → Suitable for long periods of constant pace running or long rides.
Genotype and recovery time
High expression of NRF2 (high antioxidant capacity) → Faster recovery allows for more frequent training.
Beta-alanine supplementation has been shown to improve exercise endurance in endurance athletes (Reference: ncbi.nlm.nih.gov ).
(3) The relationship between genes and sleep: maximizing recovery from endurance training
Quality sleep is essential for improving endurance, and certain genes have been shown to influence sleep patterns and your ability to recover .
Genes involved in sleep
PER3 gene (regulates circadian rhythm) → Determines whether you are good at going to bed early or waking up early, or whether you are a night owl.
ADRB1 gene (sympathetic nervous activity) → Controls changes in sleep quality due to stress.
Sleep Optimization for Endurance Athletes
PER3 long chain type (morning type) → Morning training is effective and optimizes nighttime sleep.
ADRB1 mutation type (low stress tolerance) → Avoid caffeine intake at night and use melatonin supplements.
Research evidence
Athletes who sleep less than six hours have been reported to have a negative impact on endurance recovery (Source: sciencedirect.com ).
(4) Optimizing training using AI and genomic data
In recent years, advances in AI technology have led to the development of systems that optimize training by integrating genetic information with real-time biometric data .
Key points for using AI
Works in conjunction with wearable devices to analyze the load of endurance training in real time.
Heart rate variability (HRV) data is integrated with genetic information to suggest rest based on fatigue level.
AI analyzes past training data and genetic data to generate the optimal training menu.
Research evidence
Training programs that utilize AI and genomic data have been shown to be more effective than traditional training (source: nature.com ).
Summary
Using genetic information, it is possible to perform individualized training to maximize endurance. By incorporating optimal training, nutritional management, and recovery strategies according to genotype, it is possible to improve the performance of endurance athletes. In addition, real-time training optimization is also evolving through collaboration with AI technology and wearable devices. Let’s use genetic analysis to aim for endurance improvement based on scientific evidence.
